Early Modern History

~5 mins

Early modern history begins around 1500, when Europe expanded outward through exploration and when the Renaissance and Reformation reshaped culture and religion. The phrase "early modern" means this era laid the foundations for the modern world — science, capitalism, and nation-states. The word "modern" comes from Latin modernus, meaning "just now." Early modern history is called so because it looks recognisably closer to our world: global connections, printed books, scientific thought, and centralised states.

1) The Age of Exploration was driven by the search for sea routes to Asia. Spices like pepper, cinnamon, and cloves were extremely valuable because they preserved food and added flavour. Portugal and Spain pioneered voyages along the African coast and across the Atlantic. Christopher Columbus sailed west in 1492, reaching the Caribbean. He believed he had reached Asia, but his voyages opened the Americas to European colonisation. The word colonisation comes from Latin colonia, meaning settlement of farmers.

2) The Columbian Exchange describes the transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the New World (Americas). Potatoes and maize went to Europe; horses and smallpox went to the Americas. This exchange reshaped diets, economies, and populations worldwide. The transatlantic slave trade grew out of this exchange. Millions of Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas to work on plantations producing sugar, tobacco, and cotton. The Middle Passage was the horrific voyage across the Atlantic, with high death rates from overcrowding and disease.

3) The Protestant Reformation, beginning in 1517 with Martin Luther's 95 Theses, split Western Christianity. Luther protested indulgences (payments for forgiveness) and promoted salvation by faith alone. The word Protestant comes from Latin protestari, meaning "to declare publicly." John Calvin in Geneva advanced Protestant ideas of predestination — the belief that God had already chosen who would be saved. His strict moral communities influenced areas like Switzerland, Scotland, and the Netherlands.

4) England's Reformation began under Henry VIII, who broke from the Catholic Church in the 1530s after the pope refused to annul his marriage. He established the Church of England, with the monarch as its head. The word annul comes from Latin annullare, meaning "to make null or void." The Catholic Counter-Reformation was the church's response. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) reformed corrupt practices and reaffirmed doctrines. New religious orders like the Jesuits (Society of Jesus) focused on education and missionary work.

5) The Scientific Revolution transformed knowledge between the 1500s and 1600s. Copernicus proposed heliocentrism (earth orbits the sun). Galileo used telescopes to observe moons and stars. Isaac Newton later described gravity and laws of motion, showing the universe operated by discoverable rules. The word science comes from Latin scientia, meaning knowledge. In the early modern era, science shifted from relying on ancient texts to experiments and observation, creating what we now call the scientific method.

6) Absolutism described the system where monarchs claimed absolute power over their states. Louis XIV of France (r. 1643–1715) called himself the Sun King and said, "L'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state"). His palace at Versailles symbolised royal magnificence. Constitutional monarchy developed in England. After the English Civil War (1642–1651), which ended with the execution of Charles I, Parliament gradually asserted control. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 brought William and Mary to the throne under a Bill of Rights, limiting royal power.

7) The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) devastated central Europe. It began as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire but grew into a political struggle involving most European powers. The Peace of Westphalia ended the war, introducing modern diplomacy between sovereign states. The Ottoman Empire flourished as a major early modern power. After capturing Constantinople in 1453, renamed Istanbul, the Ottomans controlled trade routes between Europe and Asia. Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566) expanded the empire into Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.

8) The Mughal Empire in India (1526–1857) combined Persian, Indian, and Islamic traditions. Akbar the Great promoted religious tolerance and administrative reforms. The Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan in the 1600s, became a symbol of Mughal architecture. The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) ruled China during much of the early modern era. Early Ming emperors sponsored voyages by Admiral Zheng He, who sailed massive treasure fleets across the Indian Ocean. Later, the dynasty turned inward, focusing on the Great Wall and internal stability.

9) In Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868) established peace after centuries of civil war. Shoguns were military rulers, while the emperor remained a symbolic figure. Tokugawa Japan restricted foreign trade and influence, maintaining stability for 250 years. The word Renaissance itself spread into Northern Europe during this time. Humanism encouraged scholars to study classical texts, but also to write in vernacular languages (local speech). This led to national literatures and identity.

10) Baroque art and architecture (1600s) followed the Renaissance. The word baroque comes from Portuguese barroco, meaning irregular pearl. It described art that was dramatic, emotional, and ornate, serving churches and monarchs. Caravaggio painted intense religious scenes with chiaroscuro (light–dark contrast), while Bernini's sculptures spiralled with movement. Mercantilism was the economic policy of early modern states. It emphasised exporting more than importing and accumulating gold and silver. Colonies provided raw materials, while mother countries manufactured goods. The word comes from Latin mercari, meaning to trade.

Related: Baroque Art | Caravaggio | Mercantilism

11) Joint-stock companies allowed investors to pool money and share profits and risks. The Dutch East India Company (1602) and English East India Company became powerful global traders. This model was a forerunner of modern corporations. The Enlightenment (1600s–1700s) was an intellectual movement stressing reason, liberty, and progress. Philosophes, or thinkers, like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu criticised monarchy and promoted tolerance, democracy, and separation of powers. The word Enlightenment comes from French siècle des Lumières, "century of lights," referring to reason illuminating ignorance.

12) Political thought shifted during the Enlightenment. John Locke argued for natural rights — life, liberty, and property. Rousseau promoted the social contract, where authority rests on the will of the people. Montesquieu suggested separating government into executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Enlightenment ideas inspired revolutions. The American Revolution (1775–1783) declared independence from Britain, creating a republic based on liberty and representation. The French Revolution (1789–1799) overthrew monarchy, proclaimed equality, and ushered in radical change.

13) Printing and literacy expanded rapidly. Newspapers, pamphlets, and books circulated Enlightenment ideas widely. Salons, gatherings hosted by wealthy women, allowed thinkers to debate in informal settings. Early modern warfare shifted with gunpowder weapons. Muskets and cannons replaced medieval knights. Standing armies, maintained by the state, became common. The word musket comes from Italian moschetto, meaning a small hawk or crossbow.

14) Navigation advanced with better maps and instruments. The compass, from Chinese invention, and the astrolabe, a Greek–Arab device for measuring stars, helped sailors cross oceans more safely. Slavery and resistance defined much of early modern history. The Atlantic system enriched Europe but caused immense suffering. Slave revolts, like the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804), showed enslaved peoples' fight for freedom.

15) Art in the Enlightenment shifted to Neoclassicism, meaning "new classic." Artists like Jacques-Louis David painted scenes from Roman history to symbolise civic duty and revolution. Architecture imitated ancient temples with columns and domes. Literature flourished. Cervantes' Don Quixote anticipated modern novels; Shakespeare's plays remained influential; Enlightenment writers like Voltaire's Candide used satire to criticise society.

16) Music transitioned from the Baroque style of Bach and Handel to the Classical style of Haydn, Mozart, and early Beethoven, which emphasised clarity, form, and balance. Everyday life changed with new foods from the Columbian Exchange. Coffee, tea, chocolate, and sugar became staples in Europe. Coffeehouses became centres of discussion, sometimes called "penny universities" because one coin bought entry and conversation.

Related: Classical Music | Mozart | Coffeehouses

17) Witch trials reflected fear and superstition. Between 1500 and 1700, tens of thousands were accused of witchcraft, often women. The word witch comes from Old English wicce, meaning sorceress. Science and rationalism eventually reduced these persecutions. Global trade created cultural blending. In Latin America, Spanish, African, and Indigenous traditions mixed in food, language, and religion. In Asia, Europeans adapted to local markets, while Asian goods like silk and porcelain shaped European tastes.

18) Demography — the study of populations — shifted dramatically. Europe's population grew after recovering from the Black Death, while Indigenous American populations collapsed from disease after contact. Colonial empires reshaped global power. Spain and Portugal dominated the 1500s, but by the 1600s the Dutch and English rose through trade and naval strength. This marked the beginning of European world dominance.

19) Early modern history ended around 1800, with the Industrial Revolution, which introduced machines, factories, and steam power, and with political revolutions that transformed states. These changes began the truly modern era. The early modern period established foundations that still shape our world: global trade networks, scientific methods, constitutional governments, and the concept of individual rights. It was truly the bridge between medieval and modern times.

↩ Back to Encyclopedia