Politics

~16 mins

Politics comes from the Greek word polis, meaning "city" or "community." In ancient Greece, the polis was not just the physical city but the community of citizens who made decisions together. Aristotle called humans "political animals" because he believed we only fulfil our nature by living in organised groups. Politics is the activity of deciding how power is distributed, who rules, and how conflicts are resolved. Politics today is global — beyond states and governments, multinational corporations, NGOs, and international bodies wield power. The World Health Organisation coordinates global health, the EU regulates trade across Europe, and activists use social media to mobilise across borders. From its Greek roots to today's world, politics is everywhere people live together.

1) Politics originated from Greek polis meaning "city" or "community," representing not just physical space but the community of citizens making collective decisions. Aristotle called humans "political animals" (zoon politikon) because he believed we only fulfil our nature by living in organised groups where we participate in governance and public life. Politics is fundamentally about how power is distributed, who rules, and how conflicts are resolved in any group. Modern politics happens in parliaments like the UK's House of Commons, presidential systems like the US, authoritarian systems like China, and international organisations like the UN or EU. Everyday politics occurs when neighbours decide how to share a driveway, student councils vote on school policies, workplace committees set rules, families decide vacation destinations democratically, or online communities moderate content. Modern examples include local councils debating housing policies, social media platforms deciding content rules, or international climate negotiations affecting everyone globally.

2) Government comes from Latin gubernare meaning "to steer" or "pilot a ship," which became Old French governer. The metaphor of steering a ship of state remains common today — leaders "navigate" crises, "chart courses," or face "political storms." Government is the system through which rules are made, implemented, and enforced within a territory. Ancient governments included monarchies (Egypt's pharaohs), aristocracies (Sparta's elite rule), and early democracies (Athens). Today's governments range from democratic like Germany and Canada, to authoritarian like North Korea and Saudi Arabia, to hybrid systems like Russia and Turkey that mix democratic and authoritarian elements. Everyday government includes local councils setting rubbish collection schedules, school administrations deciding term dates, workplace health and safety regulations, traffic laws enforced by police, or international bodies like the WHO coordinating pandemic responses. Modern examples include city mayors managing urban planning, national governments setting tax policies, or supranational bodies like the EU creating trade regulations.

3) Power, from Latin posse meaning "to be able," is the capacity to influence behaviour, decisions, and outcomes. Max Weber defined it as the ability to carry out one's will even against resistance. Power can be military (US global military presence), economic (China's Belt and Road Initiative), cultural (Hollywood's global influence), or technological (Silicon Valley's control over information). Historically, empires like Rome exercised power through legions and law; today, power is more complex and dispersed. The US projects military power globally through bases and alliances, China exercises economic power through trade and investment, the EU wields regulatory power affecting global tech companies, and social media influencers exercise cultural power over millions. Everyday power appears when bosses decide work schedules, teachers set classroom rules, parents establish household policies, friends persuade you where to eat, or algorithms decide what content you see online. Modern examples include tech companies shaping public discourse, central banks affecting global economies, or viral social movements changing policies worldwide.

Related: Political Power | Max Weber | Soft Power

4) Authority, from Latin auctoritas meaning "command" or "influence," is power that people accept as legitimate. Weber described three types: traditional (based on custom, like monarchies), charismatic (based on personal appeal, like Gandhi or Mandela), and legal-rational (based on rules and procedures, like modern bureaucracies). Traditional authority persists in countries like Thailand (monarchy) and Saudi Arabia (religious-monarchical rule). Charismatic authority appears in leaders like Volodymyr Zelensky during Ukraine's resistance or Nelson Mandela during South Africa's transition. Legal-rational authority dominates in countries like Germany, where strong institutions and rule of law provide legitimacy. Everyday authority appears when you obey traffic lights, follow school rules, accept a referee's decision in sports, trust medical professionals' advice, or comply with workplace policies even when you disagree. Modern examples include Supreme Court decisions being accepted even by those who disagree, international law being followed by most countries, or professional certifications being trusted by consumers.

5) Legitimacy, from Latin legitimus meaning "lawful," exists when people believe a government has the right to rule. Democratic elections provide legitimacy in countries like Canada, India, and South Korea. When legitimacy fails, revolts erupt — as in the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011 in Tunisia and Egypt, or Ukraine's 2014 revolution against a corrupt president. Legitimacy can come from tradition (Japanese emperor), religion (Vatican's papal authority), performance (Singapore's economic success), or democratic consent (most Western democracies). The 2020 US election showed how contested legitimacy threatens democracy when some refused to accept results. Everyday legitimacy appears in student elections where you accept the winner despite preferring another candidate, in sports where teams accept referee decisions, in workplaces where employees follow management decisions they participated in choosing, or in communities where residents accept majority decisions on local issues. Modern challenges to legitimacy include declining trust in institutions, social media spreading disinformation, or economic inequality making people question whether systems serve them.

6) Democracy, from Greek demos (people) and kratos (power), literally means "rule by the people." Ancient Athens practised direct democracy where citizens voted directly on laws in the agora. Today, most democracies are representative — people elect officials to govern for them. Examples include Norway and Denmark (consistently ranking highest in democratic quality), New Zealand (praised for inclusive governance), and South Korea (where mass protests in 2017 led to presidential impeachment, showing people power in action). Democracy requires more than elections: it needs free press, independent courts, civil liberties, and peaceful power transfers. Everyday democracy appears when groups vote on decisions (where to eat, which movie to watch), student councils elect representatives, neighbourhoods decide on community projects, or online platforms use user voting to moderate content. Modern challenges include polarisation (US political divisions), disinformation campaigns (Russian interference in elections), authoritarian backsliding (Hungary, Poland), or digital manipulation of democratic processes through social media algorithms.

7) Republic, from Latin res publica meaning "public affair," is a system where the state belongs to the public, not private rulers, and power rests with elected representatives. Ancient Rome was a republic before becoming an empire, with senators representing different classes. Modern republics include France (strong presidential system), Germany (parliamentary system), and the United States (federal presidential system). The key principle is that no one owns the state — it belongs to citizens collectively. Republics contrast with monarchies where the state theoretically belongs to the crown. Everyday republican values appear in cooperatives where members elect leadership, clubs where officers are chosen democratically, or companies with employee ownership rather than single owners. Modern republican challenges include ensuring representatives actually serve public rather than private interests, preventing wealthy elites from capturing the system, or maintaining civic engagement so citizens actively participate rather than leaving everything to elected officials.

8) Monarchy, from Greek monos (one) and archein (to rule), is government by a single ruler, usually hereditary. Medieval Europe was dominated by absolute monarchs like Louis XIV of France ("L'état, c'est moi" — "I am the state"). Today, most monarchies are constitutional, where monarchs serve ceremonial roles while elected officials govern — like the UK, Sweden, Japan, and Thailand. A few absolute monarchies survive, notably Saudi Arabia and Eswatini, where kings retain real power. Monarchies provide stability and continuity (British monarchy spanning centuries) but can lack democratic accountability. Everyday monarchy appears in family businesses where leadership passes from parent to child, traditional communities with hereditary chiefs, or organisations with lifetime appointments. Modern monarchies face questions about relevance and cost (British royal family expenses), democratic legitimacy (unelected heads of state), or succession crises (Thailand's complex succession laws).

9) Aristocracy, from Greek aristos (best) and kratos (rule), originally meant rule by the most virtuous and qualified, but evolved to mean rule by nobles or the wealthy. Plato envisioned philosopher-kings as ideal aristocrats. Medieval Europe's feudal aristocracy held vast power through land ownership and titles. Today, aristocratic influence persists in Britain's House of Lords (hereditary peers still sit), dynastic political families like India's Gandhis or America's Kennedys, or wealthy elites dominating politics through campaign contributions. Modern "meritocratic aristocracy" appears in technocratic governments (Singapore's highly educated leadership) or elite educational institutions producing political leaders. Everyday aristocracy appears in exclusive social clubs, private schools reproducing privilege, corporate boards dominated by connected elites, or professional networks where family connections matter more than merit. Contemporary challenges include whether meritocracy actually selects the best leaders or just reproduces existing privilege, and how to balance expertise with democratic representation.

10) Oligarchy, from Greek oligos (few) and archein (to rule), means government by a small group. Aristotle warned that oligarchies often serve the wealthy few rather than the common good. Modern examples include Russia (wealthy businessmen or "oligarchs" wielding huge influence over Putin's government), Ukraine before 2014 (dominated by competing oligarch groups), or some African countries where small elites control resources. Democratic countries can develop oligarchic tendencies when wealth concentrates political power — like wealthy donors dominating US elections or media moguls shaping public opinion globally. Everyday oligarchy appears in sports teams where only captains make decisions, group projects dominated by a few active members, or workplaces where informal networks of senior employees control outcomes. Modern challenges include preventing wealth from translating directly into political power, ensuring diverse representation in decision-making, or breaking up concentrations of economic and political influence.

11) Dictatorship, from Latin dictare meaning "to declare," originally referred to Roman emergency appointments with temporary absolute power. Modern dictatorship means one person rules with unchecked authority, usually seizing power through force or manipulation. Historical examples include Hitler's Nazi Germany, Stalin's Soviet Union, and Mussolini's Italy. Contemporary dictatorships include North Korea under the Kim dynasty, Myanmar under military rule, or Belarus under Lukashenko. Dictatorships often use propaganda, secret police, and repression to maintain control. They may provide stability or economic growth (Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew) but lack accountability and respect for rights. Everyday dictatorship appears in workplaces with authoritarian bosses who never listen to input, classrooms run without student participation, or online communities with heavy-handed moderation. Modern dictatorships adapt by using technology for surveillance (China's social credit system), manipulating elections rather than abolishing them (Russia, Venezuela), or co-opting opposition rather than simply repressing it.

12) Authoritarianism, from Latin auctoritas meaning "authority," describes systems where rulers demand obedience and restrict freedoms without necessarily controlling every aspect of life. Unlike totalitarian regimes, authoritarian ones may allow some economic or social freedom while restricting political opposition. Examples include China (economic freedom but political control), Singapore (efficient governance but limited dissent), Egypt under Sisi (restricted opposition), or Hungary under Orbán (captured media and courts). Authoritarian regimes often justify restrictions by promising stability, economic growth, or protection from threats. Everyday authoritarianism appears when leaders make unilateral decisions without consulting members, institutions that discourage questioning or feedback, or social groups that demand conformity and punish dissent. Modern authoritarianism often uses legal means (restrictive laws rather than outright coups), information control (media manipulation rather than total censorship), or electoral manipulation (unfair elections rather than no elections).

13) Totalitarianism, from Latin totalis meaning "whole," describes regimes seeking to control every aspect of public and private life through ideology, surveillance, and terror. Classic examples include Stalin's Soviet Union (with gulags, show trials, and pervasive fear), Nazi Germany (racial ideology and genocide), Mao's China (Cultural Revolution and thought control), or Pol Pot's Cambodia (radical social engineering). North Korea today comes closest to totalitarianism with complete information control, hereditary leadership cult, and total state dominance. Totalitarian regimes use ideology to justify control, create "new" citizens, and eliminate all independent institutions. Everyday glimpses appear in extreme environments like cults where leaders control all aspects of members' lives, boarding schools with total surveillance and control, or online communities with complete thought policing. Modern technology enables new forms of totalitarian control through digital surveillance, social credit systems, or algorithmic manipulation of information and behaviour.

14) Liberty, from Latin libertas meaning "freedom," is the condition of being free from oppressive restrictions. Philosophers distinguish negative liberty (freedom from interference — the right to be left alone) and positive liberty (freedom to fulfil potential — having the power and resources to act). The US Constitution emphasises negative liberties like free speech and religion, while Scandinavian countries stress positive liberty through welfare states enabling citizens to live freely. Classical liberals like John Stuart Mill argued for maximum individual freedom, while modern liberals support government action to ensure everyone can exercise freedom meaningfully. Everyday liberty includes choosing your career, religion, relationships, or lifestyle without coercion, expressing opinions without fear, or moving freely within and between countries. Modern liberty challenges include balancing security with freedom (post-9/11 surveillance), digital privacy rights (tech company data collection), or ensuring liberty is real for everyone, not just the privileged.

15) Rights, from Old English riht meaning "fair" or "just," are claims recognised by law or morality that individuals or groups can make against others or governments. John Locke argued for natural rights to life, liberty, and property. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) established global standards including civil rights (free speech, fair trial), political rights (voting, assembly), economic rights (work, education), and social rights (healthcare, housing). Rights can conflict — free speech versus protection from hate speech, or religious freedom versus gender equality. Everyday rights include privacy in your home, freedom to express opinions online, voting in elections, fair treatment at work, or access to education and healthcare. Modern rights debates include digital rights (internet privacy, algorithmic fairness), environmental rights (clean air and water), LGBTQ+ rights (marriage equality, anti-discrimination), or balancing individual rights with collective welfare during health emergencies.

16) Justice, from Latin iustitia meaning "righteousness," is the principle of fairness in how people are treated. Plato saw justice as harmony in society where everyone plays their proper role. Aristotle distinguished distributive justice (fair allocation of resources) and corrective justice (punishment and compensation). Modern philosopher John Rawls argued for justice as fairness, designing society as if you didn't know your position in it. Justice systems vary globally — US adversarial courts, European inquisitorial systems, Islamic sharia courts, or traditional community justice. Everyday justice appears in fairly splitting chores among housemates, consistent punishment for rule-breaking in sports, equal opportunities in hiring, or proportional consequences for wrongdoing. Modern justice challenges include addressing historical injustices (reparations for slavery, indigenous rights), ensuring equal access to legal systems regardless of wealth, balancing punishment with rehabilitation, or adapting justice systems to digital age crimes and global interconnection.

Related: Justice | John Rawls | Criminal Justice

17) Equality, from Latin aequalis meaning "level," is the principle that all people deserve equal treatment, opportunities, or outcomes. Political debates centre on "equality of what?" — legal equality (same laws for all), equality of opportunity (fair chances), or equality of outcome (similar results). Countries like Finland and Denmark pursue high equality through progressive taxation and strong welfare states, while others like the US emphasise equal opportunities over equal outcomes. The French Revolution's "égalité" inspired global movements for racial equality (US civil rights), gender equality (women's suffrage), or economic equality (labour movements). Everyday equality appears in ensuring everyone gets equal turns in games, fair grading standards for all students, equal pay for equal work, or inclusive representation in group decisions. Modern equality challenges include intersectionality (how race, gender, and class interact), global inequality between rich and poor countries, digital divides in access to technology, or balancing equality with other values like freedom and efficiency.

18) Law, from Old English lagu meaning "that which is laid down," is the system of rules created and enforced by governments to regulate behaviour, resolve disputes, and maintain order. Laws shape behaviour by setting boundaries and consequences. Ancient Rome's Twelve Tables were among the first written legal codes, influencing legal systems worldwide. Today's legal systems include common law (UK, US, based on judicial precedent), civil law (continental Europe, based on written codes), religious law (Islamic sharia, Jewish halakha), and customary law (traditional African or indigenous systems). Everyday law includes traffic regulations, employment contracts, consumer protection, criminal penalties, or international treaties governing trade and human rights. Modern legal challenges include adapting law to digital technologies (cryptocurrency regulation, online privacy), global issues requiring international cooperation (climate change, tax avoidance), or ensuring access to justice regardless of wealth or status.

Related: Law | Legal Systems | Rule of Law

19) Sovereignty, from Old French soverain meaning "supreme," is the highest authority within a territory — the power to make and enforce laws without external control. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) established modern sovereignty after Europe's religious wars, creating the principle of non-interference in domestic affairs. Sovereignty can be challenged by globalisation (multinational corporations more powerful than some states), international law (UN Security Council resolutions), or internal divisions (separatist movements). Examples include Switzerland fiercely protecting neutrality and independence, Brexit as Britain reclaiming sovereignty from the EU, or Ukraine fighting to maintain sovereignty against Russian invasion. Everyday sovereignty appears in parents asserting household rules regardless of outside opinions, institutions maintaining internal governance, or communities self-determining local policies. Modern sovereignty faces challenges from global problems requiring cooperation (pandemics, climate change), digital technologies crossing borders (internet governance), or supranational institutions (EU, WTO) limiting national autonomy.

20) Nation, from Latin natio meaning "birth" or "tribe," refers to a people bound by shared language, culture, history, or identity. Nations may or may not align with state boundaries — Japan is both a nation and state, while Kurds are a nation spread across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria without their own state. The 19th century saw the rise of nationalism as peoples sought self-determination. Today's world has about 195 states but thousands of distinct ethnic groups or nations. Successful multinational states include Canada (English and French), Switzerland (four languages), or India (hundreds of languages). Everyday nationalism appears in supporting your country in sports, celebrating cultural festivals, preferring local products, or feeling pride in national achievements. Modern challenges include balancing national identity with multiculturalism, managing separatist movements (Scotland, Catalonia), addressing stateless nations (Palestinians, Tibetans), or preventing nationalism from becoming exclusionary or aggressive.

21) Nationalism is devotion to one's nation, often emphasising cultural distinctiveness and self-governance. It fuelled 19th-century independence movements in Italy, Germany, Greece, and Latin America. Civic nationalism (based on shared values and citizenship) differs from ethnic nationalism (based on blood, soil, or culture). Positive nationalism inspires unity, independence movements, and cultural pride — like Ireland's struggle for independence or African decolonisation. Negative nationalism fuels exclusion, xenophobia, and conflict — like ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, Rwanda's genocide, or contemporary far-right movements. Everyday nationalism includes choosing local products over imports, insisting on speaking your native language proudly, supporting national teams in international competitions, or celebrating national holidays. Modern nationalism faces tensions between global interconnection and local identity, multiculturalism and national cohesion, or patriotism and jingoism. Brexit, Trump's "America First," or Modi's Hindu nationalism show nationalism's continued political power.

22) International relations, from Latin inter (between) and relatio (connection), studies how states, international organisations, and non-state actors interact globally. It encompasses diplomacy, war, trade, law, and cooperation on global issues. Realist theories emphasise power and security, liberal theories stress cooperation and institutions, and constructivist theories focus on ideas and identity. The Cold War (1945-1991) defined global politics as US-Soviet competition. Today's multipolar world features US-China strategic rivalry, European integration, rising powers like India and Brazil, and global challenges like climate change requiring cooperation. Everyday international relations appear in global supply chains bringing you smartphones, student exchange programmes, international news affecting local markets, multinational companies operating across borders, or social media connecting people globally. Modern IR includes economic interdependence (trade wars affecting consumers), global governance (WHO pandemic coordination), regional integration (EU, ASEAN), or transnational issues (terrorism, migration, cyber security) requiring international cooperation.

23) Diplomacy, from Greek diplōma meaning "folded paper" (referring to official documents), is the art of negotiation between states and other international actors. Diplomacy seeks to resolve conflicts, build relationships, and advance interests through dialogue rather than force. Famous diplomatic successes include the Camp David Accords (1978) achieving Israeli-Egyptian peace, the Good Friday Agreement (1998) ending Northern Ireland's troubles, or the Iran nuclear deal (2015). Track-two diplomacy involves non-official actors like academics or business leaders. Public diplomacy uses cultural exchange and media to influence foreign publics. Everyday diplomacy appears in mediating between arguing friends, negotiating household responsibilities, resolving workplace conflicts, or international business negotiations. Modern diplomacy includes digital diplomacy (social media engagement), economic diplomacy (trade negotiations), climate diplomacy (COP conferences), or pandemic diplomacy (vaccine distribution cooperation). Challenges include declining trust between major powers, social media complicating traditional diplomatic secrecy, or non-state actors (terrorists, corporations) affecting international relations.

24) War, from Old High German werra meaning "strife," is organised conflict between political entities, typically involving armed force. Clausewitz famously called war "politics by other means" — a tool states use when diplomacy fails. Wars shape history: World War II created today's international order, the Cold War defined decades of global politics, and Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine shows war still determines sovereignty and borders. Modern warfare includes conventional armies, guerrilla insurgencies, cyber attacks, economic warfare, and information warfare. The UN Charter prohibits aggressive war, but conflicts continue in Syria, Yemen, Afghanistan, and elsewhere. Everyday echoes of war appear in competitive sports described as "battles," business competition as "warfare," or political campaigns as "fights." Modern warfare challenges include distinguishing combatants from civilians, preventing nuclear escalation, cyber attacks on civilian infrastructure, autonomous weapons systems, or information warfare undermining democratic processes.

Related: War | Clausewitz | Laws of War

25) Peace, from Latin pax, is not merely the absence of war but the presence of justice, cooperation, and harmony. The Pax Romana created centuries of stability across the Mediterranean. Modern peace includes negative peace (no violence) and positive peace (justice and cooperation). International peacekeeping involves UN missions in conflict zones, peace processes like Northern Ireland's Good Friday Agreement, or post-conflict reconciliation like South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Peace research studies conflict prevention, resolution, and post-conflict reconstruction. Everyday peace appears in resolved family arguments, friends reconciling after fights, workplace mediation ending disputes, or community dialogue bridging divides. Modern peace challenges include preventing conflicts before they start, building sustainable peace after wars end, addressing root causes like inequality and injustice, or managing global issues like climate change that could trigger future conflicts. Digital age peace includes combating online hate speech, preventing cyber conflicts, or using technology for conflict early warning and prevention.

Related: Peace | UN Peacekeeping | Peace Studies

26) Ideology, from Greek idea (form) and logos (study), is a system of ideas about politics, society, and human nature that guides action. Major ideologies include liberalism (individual freedom), conservatism (tradition and order), socialism (equality and collective ownership), fascism (nationalism and authoritarianism), and environmentalism (sustainability and limits). Ideologies shape party politics — US Democrats tend liberal, Republicans conservative; European social democrats blend socialism and liberalism. China follows "socialism with Chinese characteristics" combining communist ideology with market economics. Everyday ideology appears in how people view taxes (necessary for public goods vs. theft from individuals), education (equal access vs. meritocratic selection), or gender roles (traditional vs. egalitarian), often without explicit political labels. Modern ideological challenges include post-ideological politics (technocratic governance), populist challenges to established ideologies, or new ideologies emerging around technology, identity, and global challenges.

27) Liberalism, from Latin liber meaning "free," emphasises individual liberty, rights, democracy, and limited government. Classical liberalism (Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill) stressed free markets and minimal state intervention. Modern liberalism supports government action to ensure everyone can exercise freedom meaningfully — through education, healthcare, and social safety nets. The US Constitution and French Revolution embodied liberal ideals. Today's liberal democracies like Canada, Germany, or New Zealand enshrine freedoms of speech, religion, press, and assembly while providing social services. Neoliberalism emphasises free markets and globalisation. Everyday liberalism appears in defending someone's right to express unpopular opinions, supporting diverse lifestyles, favouring individual choice over collective conformity, or believing government should protect rights but not dictate personal decisions. Modern liberal challenges include balancing freedom with security, individual rights with community needs, or market freedom with social justice.

28) Conservatism, from Latin conservare meaning "to preserve," values tradition, stability, gradual change, and established institutions. Edmund Burke, reacting to the French Revolution's chaos, argued society should evolve slowly rather than through sudden upheaval. Conservatives emphasise family, religion, community, and proven institutions over abstract theories. Modern conservative parties include the UK Conservatives, US Republicans, or Germany's CDU. Fiscal conservatives favour low taxes and spending, social conservatives stress traditional values, and neoconservatives support strong defence. Everyday conservatism appears in keeping family traditions alive, preferring proven methods over experimental ones, respecting established authorities and institutions, or resisting rapid social changes. Modern conservative challenges include adapting to technological and social change while preserving valuable traditions, balancing free markets with social stability, or addressing younger generations' different values and priorities.

29) Socialism, from Latin socius meaning "companion," advocates collective ownership or democratic control of economic resources to reduce inequality and ensure everyone's needs are met. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels critiqued capitalism's exploitation and predicted socialist revolution. Democratic socialism (Nordic countries) combines democratic politics with strong welfare states and worker protections. Market socialism allows markets within overall social ownership. Revolutionary socialism seeks to overthrow capitalism entirely. Examples include Cuba's state socialism, Venezuela's "21st-century socialism," or Nordic social democracy. Everyday socialism appears in cooperatives where workers own businesses together, public libraries and schools funded collectively, universal healthcare systems, or sharing resources equally in households or communities. Modern socialist challenges include proving economic efficiency compared to capitalism, adapting to globalisation and technological change, or maintaining democratic accountability in socialist systems.

30) Communism, from Latin communis meaning "common," is a radical form of socialism aiming for a classless, stateless society where property is collectively owned and goods distributed according to need. Marx envisioned communist society emerging after socialist revolution and state withering away. The Soviet Union, China under Mao, Cuba, and North Korea attempted communist systems, though critics argue they became state capitalist or authoritarian rather than truly communist. Communist parties exist worldwide but few hold power. Anarchist communism rejects state power entirely. Everyday glimpses of communist principles appear in intentional communities sharing resources equally, kibbutzim in Israel, family households where resources are shared based on need rather than contribution, or open-source software development where people contribute freely. Modern communism faces questions about economic efficiency, individual freedom, and whether large-scale communist society is achievable without authoritarianism.

Related: Communism | Marxism | Communist States

31) Fascism, from Italian fascio meaning "bundle" (symbol of Roman authority), is an authoritarian ideology stressing extreme nationalism, hierarchy, and unity through a powerful leader and state. Fascists reject democracy, socialism, and liberalism, instead glorifying nation, race, or leader above individual rights. Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany embodied fascism with mass rallies, propaganda, scapegoating minorities, and aggressive war. Fascism appeals during crises by promising simple solutions and strong leadership. Today, scholars debate whether movements in Hungary, Brazil, or the US show fascist characteristics. Everyday fascist tendencies appear in groups demanding total loyalty, crushing dissent, glorifying strength and violence over compromise, or scapegoating outsiders for problems. Modern fascism might adapt to democratic systems through electoral victory, social media manipulation, or gradual erosion of democratic norms rather than sudden coups.

Related: Fascism | Mussolini | Neo-fascism

32) Anarchism, from Greek an (without) + archos (ruler), rejects coercive authority and advocates voluntary cooperation and self-organisation. Anarchists like Bakunin and Kropotkin envisioned societies without states, based on mutual aid and direct democracy. Anarchist experiments included Spanish collectives during the 1936-1939 civil war, or contemporary autonomous zones like Chiapas, Mexico. Anarcho-capitalism combines anarchism with free market economics, while anarcho-socialism emphasises collective ownership. Everyday anarchism appears in open-source software projects where no central authority controls development, volunteer networks organising without hierarchy, consensus decision-making in cooperatives, or communities self-organising disaster relief. Modern anarchism includes digital anarchism (cryptocurrency, decentralised internet), eco-anarchism (opposing industrial civilisation), or anarcha-feminism (linking patriarchy and state oppression). Challenges include scaling anarchist organisation beyond small communities, preventing chaos or exploitation without some authority, or maintaining cooperation without coercion.

Related: Anarchism | Bakunin | Anarcho-capitalism

33) Geopolitics combines geography with politics, studying how location, resources, and physical features influence international relations and state power. Geopolitical thinking includes Mackinder's "Heartland Theory" (controlling Central Asia controls the world), Mahan's emphasis on sea power, or Spykman's "Rimland" concept. Modern geopolitics examines US-China competition in the South China Sea, Russia's use of energy exports as political weapons, Arctic competition as ice melts, or how geography shapes conflicts in the Middle East. Geopolitical factors include natural resources (oil in the Gulf, rare earth minerals in China), strategic locations (Suez Canal, Strait of Hormuz), physical barriers (Himalayas separating India and China), or climate change opening new routes (Arctic shipping). Everyday geopolitics affects gas prices during Middle Eastern conflicts, supply chain disruptions during international tensions, or migration patterns influenced by climate and conflict. Modern geopolitics includes cyber space as a new domain, space militarisation, or how geography influences information flows and digital connectivity.

34) Policy, from Greek polis meaning "city," is a deliberate course of action adopted by governments, organisations, or individuals to achieve specific goals. Public policy includes economic policy (taxation, spending), social policy (education, healthcare), foreign policy (diplomacy, defence), and environmental policy (climate action, conservation). Policy-making involves agenda-setting (identifying problems), formulation (designing solutions), implementation (carrying out decisions), and evaluation (assessing results). Examples include Sweden's generous parental leave policy reflecting social priorities, China's Belt and Road Initiative advancing geopolitical goals, or COVID-19 policies varying dramatically between countries. Everyday policy appears in school dress codes, company environmental policies, household rules about screen time, or community policies about noise levels. Modern policy challenges include evidence-based policy-making, unintended consequences, policy coordination across levels of government, or adapting policies to rapid technological and social change.

35) Public opinion, from Latin publicus meaning "of the people," refers to collective attitudes and beliefs of citizens on political issues. It influences politicians, especially in democracies where leaders need public support for re-election. Public opinion forms through media, education, personal experience, and social networks. Polling measures opinion on issues and candidates, shaping campaign strategies and policy decisions. Examples include Brexit polling influencing UK politics, approval ratings affecting presidential power in the US, or climate change opinion driving policy in Europe. Everyday public opinion appears as peer pressure in social groups, community sentiment affecting local decisions, online opinion shaping corporate behaviour, or family discussions influencing individual political views. Modern public opinion faces challenges from social media echo chambers, disinformation campaigns, polling accuracy problems, or the gap between informed and uninformed opinion on complex issues.

36) Politics today is fundamentally global and interconnected. Beyond traditional states and governments, multinational corporations wield enormous influence (Apple's market value exceeds most countries' GDP), international organisations coordinate global governance (WHO for health, WTO for trade, UN for security), NGOs mobilise across borders (Amnesty International, Greenpeace), and social movements use digital platforms to organise globally (Arab Spring, #MeToo, climate activism). Global politics includes managing pandemics requiring international cooperation, addressing climate change affecting everyone, regulating multinational tech companies, preventing nuclear proliferation, or managing global economic interdependence. Everyday global politics appears in buying products made across multiple countries, following international news affecting local communities, using social media platforms governed by global rules, or seeing how international events affect local prices and opportunities. From its ancient Greek roots in the polis to today's interconnected world, politics remains the fundamental activity of people living together and making collective decisions about power, resources, and values.

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